Oleh Eliyahu Ashtor
- Kata Pengantar
Artikel yang ditulis
oleh almarhum Eliyahu Ashtor (1914 – 1984), sejarahwan berdarah Austria –
Israel ini, sangat berharga untuk dibaca dan diketahui. Artikel ini aslinya
berjudul Spice
Prices in the Near East in the 15th Century,
dan dimuat pada Journal
of the Royal Asiatic Society, volume 108, isu 1,
Januari 1976, halaman 26 – 41. Sesuai judulnya, artikel atau makalah ini adalah
tentang harga-harga rempah-rempah yang beredar di pasar Levant atau di Timur
Tengah (Timur Dekat).
Kita memang
mengetahui tentang betapa bernilainya cengkih, salah satu dari rempah-rempah
itu. Namun, tidak banyak yang mengetahui berapa harganya, yang membuat
bangsa-bangsa Eropa begitu “tergila-gila” ingin mencari sumber rempah-rempah
tersebut. Melalui artikel sepanjang 16
halaman dan 168 catatan kaki inilah, Ashtor menyajikan daftar harga rempah-rempah
itu, termasuk cengkih dalam 9 tabel. Ada harga Lada, Kayu Manis, Jahe dan
Cengkih pada abad ke-15, bahkan yang paling tertua berasal dari tahun 1401. Ashtor
menyebut bahwa harga-harga yang ia sajikan itu, berasal dari sumber-sumber
Arab, dan dokumen-dokumen Italia.
Pasar dagang Levant,
bisa dianggap titik “terakhir” dari panjangnya perjalanan rempah-rempah dari
dunia timur ke Eropa. Dari sinilah, para pedagang Eropa memperoleh
rempah-rempah itu, dan ketika pusat perdagangan Mediterania ini diblokade, maka
Eropa “gelagapan”. Situasi demikian, yang akhirnya membuat Portugis dan Spanyol
berusaha mencari jalan, untuk menemukan asal rempah-rempah yang mereka
butuhkan.
Menganggap bahwa
kajian ini bermanfaat untuk diketahui, maka kami memberanikan diri untuk
menerjemahkannya. Beberapa ilustrasi kami tambahkan untuk “memperindah” artikel
terjemahan ini. Akhirnya, selamat membaca, semoga pengetahuan kita semakin luas.
- Terjemahan : Kutu Busu
Merupakan fakta yang
telah diketahui bahwa penemuan rute laut ke India, dan kelangkaan rempah-rempah
serta produk India lainnya di pasar Alexandria dan Damascus mengakibatkan
harga-harga rempah-rempah naik tajam. Dilihat dari sumber-sumber Venesia,
perubahan kondisi perdagangan Levant dianggap sebagai bencana besar. Di sisi
lain, beberapa sarjana telah menarik perhatian pada fakta bahwa harga lada
turun tajam di pasar Eropa, pada periode sebelum ekspedisi Vasco da Gama, dan
terutama pada kuartal kedua abad ke-151. Hal yang mungkin,
berdasarkan teori, bahwa ini disebabkan oleh tren penurunan harga di Timur
Tengah (Timur Dekat). Tetapi faktor-faktor lain, seperti tingkat permintaan di
negara-negara Eropa dan kondisi perdagangan (sistem hubungan dengan Timur
Tengah, perdagangan langsung atau tidak langsung), juga dapat mempengaruhi
harga rempah-rempah di Eropa2. Untuk menjelaskan dampak yang luar
biasa dari kenaikan harga rempah-rempah pada awal abad ke-16, saya (penulis)
telah menyarankan dalam buku saya Historie de prix et des salaires, kemungkinan
jatuhnya harga di kekaisaran Timur Tengah pada periode pra-Vasco Da Gama3.
Dalam makalah yang diterbitkan beberapa tahun sebelumnya, saya mencoba
memperkuat dugaan ini dengan bahan-bahan tambahan, dan selanjutnya, dengan
anggapan bahwa itu disertai dengan peningkatan besar dalam volume perdagangan
Levant, dan juga penurunan harga secara umum di Timur Tengah pada akhir abad pertengahan4.
Makalah ini mencakup
banyak data yang lebih lengkap, yang telah saya kumpulkan sebelumnya dari
berbagai sumber. Bahan-bahan untuk sejarah perdagangan Levant di Quattrocento
memang sangat banyak, sehingga memungkinkan untuk menyusun serangkaian lengkap
tentang harga, setidaknya dalam hal komoditas yang paling penting. Jadi makalah
ini memiliki dua tujuan : untuk mempublikasikan data baru, dan untuk menguatkan
hipotesis penurunan harga pada periode sebelum penemuan yang dilakukan oleh
Vasco da Gama5.
Beberapa data yang
terangkum dalam tabel-tabel berikut, saya temukan dalam kronik-kronik Arab,
tetapi sebagian besar diambil dari dokumen-dokumen Italia6. Banyak
yang berasal dari daftar harga yang dihasilkan oleh agen-agen perusahaan
Italia, yang lain berasal dari pernyataan resmi Giudici di petizion, sebuah
pengadilan untuk pedagang di Venesia.
Bagi sejarahwan
ekonomi, daftar harga dari periode yang diinginkan memiliki keuntungan luar
biasa. Kebanyakan dari daftar harga itu, memiliki tanggal yang tepat (tahun,
bulan dan hari), dan seringkali arsip-arsip dari perusahaan memuat surat dari
agen, yang ditulis pada hari yang sama, dimana ia memberi tahu pimpinannya
bahwa ia telah berhasil membeli sesuatu barang dengan harga lebih murah. Daftar
harga dalam Practica
della mercatura dari Giovanni da
Uzzano, bagaimanapun, sedikit bermasalah. Pada halaman judul, kita menemukan
tahun 1442, dan pada akhir tahun 1440. Tetapi beberapa data dalam buku itu
sendiri, telah menimbulkan keraguan pada bagian editor pertama, apakah penulis
memang mengumpulkan informasi tentang praktik dan kondisi komersial di zamannya
sendiri. Pagnini, editor buku itu, cenderung percaya bahwa ia telah menyalin
catatan yang dikumpulkan oleh orang lain, karena beberapa catatan yang ia
kutip, bertanggal tahun-tahun sebelumnya, pada masa sebelum ia dilahirkan7.
Mahasiswa yang tertarik pada bab-bab yang terkait dengan kondisi Timur Tengah,
harus memperhatikan fakta bahwa penulis tidak menyebutkan tentang ashrafi, yang
menjadi koin emas Mesir dan Suriah pada Desember 1425. Giovanni da Uzzano
merujuk harga di Mesir dalam dinar (bisanti), bernikai 1 – 1,3
dukat8. Namun, ini juga berlaku untuk Panduan Pedagang lainnya,
yang ditulis sekitar 8 tahun kemudian. Bahkan Libro di mercatantie
tidak mengetahui tentang ashrafi9.
Tanpa mempertimbangkan antara ashrafi dan dinar kanonik,
kita dapat menilai dari daftar harga Uzzano, bahwa indikasinya merujuk pada
periode 5 tahun sebelum dia menulis, atau mungkin bahkan 15 tahun.
Penjabaran data-data
yang terdiri dari catatan-catatan pengadilan disertai dengan berbagai
kesulitan. Sangat sering tanggal transaksi tidak disebutkan, dan di sisi lain, pengadilan
Giudici di petizion seringkali
terkait dengan proses pengadilan beberapa tahun sebelumnya. Jadi, kita harus mencoba
menetapkan tanggal dan mengidentifikasi pemilik-pemilik perahu, dimana barang
dagangan dikirim, atau menemukan orang lain yang mengambil bagian dalam
transaksi. Tak perlu dikatakan bahwa banyak tanggal yang ditetapkan dengan cara
ini, akan tetap bersifat dugaan. Lebih lanjut, acta peradilan
tidak memberikan tanggal dalam tahun tersebut. Tetapi seringkali, kita dapat
dengan aman menyimpulkan bahwa pekan raya rempah-rempah musim gugur tahunan
(yang disebut muda)
yang dimaksudkan. Kesulitan lain adalah sifat alami dari harga: kadang-kadang
subjek adalah harga yang dibayarkan di Levant, kadang-kadang harga di Venesia10,
termasuk semua biaya dan harga tara11.
Sejauh menyangkut
harga di pasar Levant, perbedaan harus dibuat antara harga bersih (tanpa bea
dan biaya lainnya) dan harga barang dagangan yang dikirim di atas kapal (spazado a marina)12.
Kita juga harus membedakan (seperti dilakukan dalam beberapa dokumen) antara
harga yang dibayarkan kepada pedagang Oriental/dari Timur (“da moro a franco”),
dan pembelian dari para pedagang Eropa lain di Timur Tengah (“da franco a franco”)13.
Kadang-kadang pihak
penuntut meminta jumlah yang jelas tidak sesuai dengan nilai barang dagangan.
Tujuan dari tindakan semacam itu adalah untuk melindungi klaimnya, dan pihak penuntutu
meminta bukan untuk nilai sebenarnya dari barang dagangan, tetapi untuk jumlah
resmi, misalnya 51 dukat14. Namun demikian, saya telah memperhatikan
semua data ini, dan dalam kasus dimana tidak ada yang lain, ditambahkan suatu
catatan, seperti referensi untuk pembebasan terdakwa.
Akhirnya pada
persoalan inti dari suatu bobot. Hampir semua data dari Suriah tampaknya
merujuk ke qintar Damascus,
yang terdiri dari 185 kg, menurut sumber-sumber Arab15, tetapi
menurut Panduan
Pedagang dan sumber-sumber Italia lainnya menjadi 600 pon
Venesia lebih ringan, yaitu 180 kg (tepatnya 180,73782 kg) atau bahkan kurang16.
Sangat sering harga pondo atau
collo (satuan
yang sama) yang dirujuk. Sejauh menyangkut kondisi Suriah, banyak dokumen
menunjukan bahwa itu setara dengan 50 – 52 ratls Damascus17.
Jadi kita dapat dengan aman menghitungnya sekitar 90 kg, atau setengah qintar Damascus.
Di Mesir, sebagian besar rempah-rempah dan barang-barang serupa ditimbang dalam
3 unit : qintar rempah-rempah,
sporta (bahasa
Arab, himl)
yang sama dengan 5 qintar rempah-rempah,
serta qintar dari
manns. Menurut
sumber-sumber Muslim, qintar rempah-rempah sama
dengan 45 kg18. Sumber-sumber Italia tampaknya setuju dengan
indikasi ini, meskipun ada perbedaan kecil, pedagang-pedagang Italia menganggapnya
agal lebih ringan daripada ang dilakukan oleh pedagang umat Islam19.
Akibatnya, ada perbedaan besar antara himl (5 qintar)
dan sporta. Bagi
para pedagang Italia, itu sama dengan 700 atau 720 pon Venesia lebih ringan,
yaitu 210,861 atau 216,8856 kg20. Sumber-sumber Arab menghitung mann Mesir
sama dengan 0,8125 kg21. Panduan Pedagang dari
Italia menunjukan padanan yang jauh lebih ringan22. Secara umum,
tampaknya sumber-sumber Italia menunjukan bobot nyata, sedangkan sumber-sumber atau penulis-penulis Muslim berbicara tentang
yang resmi. Dalam dokumen yang merujuk pada perdagangan dengan Mesir, muncul
juga pondo atau
collo. F.C.
Lane percaya bahwa itu sama dengan 1,12o pon Venesia23. Tetapi,
tampaknya dalam banyak dokumen akhir abad ke-14 dan awal abad ke-15, pondo ini
adalah dobel dari pondo Suriah
(90 kg), yang selanjutnya sekitar 4 kali lipat lebih banyak. Namun, berlawanan
dengan collo Suriah,
yang terakhir ini adalah unit yang agak samar-samar. Tidak ada kesimpulan,
karena itu harus diambil dari indikasi harga pondo seperti
itu24
Tabel-tabel
Tabel-tabel berikut ini memuat temuan saya
tentang harga rempah-rempah yang menempati posisi pertama dalam perdagangan
Levant, dengan kata lain barang-barang yang jumlah terbesarnya dikirim ke Eropa25.
Ini hanya terdiri dari data yang mengacu pada harga pasar, sedangkan jumlah
harga yang dipaksa dibeli oleh pedagang Eropa setiap tahun dari pemerintah
Muslim ditiadakan.
Kesimpulan
Tak
perlu dikatakan bahwa sejarahwan ekonomi haruslah diizinkan untuk memeriksa
data ini dengan berbagai cara. Harga biasanya lebih tinggi di musim gugur, di
periode muda148. Tetapi
harga rempah-rempah tidak hanya naik ketika para pedagang Eropa datang ke
pameran tahunan. Ada alasan lain mengapa harga rempah-rempah berfluktuasi,
seringkali, selama tahun itu (perhatikan harga lada di Alexandria pada tahun
1418, dan di Damaskus pada tahun 1412 dan 1413). Terkadang penyebabnya adalah
panen yang buruk atau hilangnya transportasi. Kadang-kadang ada perbedaan besar
antara harga produk tertentu di berbagai kota di negara yang sama149.
Harga yang lebih rendah diminta untuk dibayar tunai. Akhirnya ada harga
“bersih”, tidak termasuk berbagai biaya dan pengeluaran, dan harga yang lebih
tinggi dibayar untuk barang dagangan yang dikirim ke kapal (di pantai).
Perbedaan antara kedua harga itu, sebagian besar sekitar 10%150.
Data kami memungkinkan banyak jebakan, namun beberapa fakta memang muncul.
Sporta lada di Alexandria pada
tahun-tahun pertama abad ke-15 berharga 60-70 dinar, sama seperti pada akhir
abad ke-14151. Ketika al-Maqrizi mengatakan “ sebelum” harga sporta melonjak naik pada tahun 1413
menjadi 60 dinar, ia pasti memaksudkan pada tahun-tahun pertama abad ini.
Seperti yang ditunjukan data dari Damaskus, harga lada sudah mulai naik sebelum
tahun 1410. Di Alexandria, pada tahun 1411-1413, harga sporta naik menjadi 220 – 250 dinar. Dari tahun 1414 dan
selanjutnya, secara bertahap kembali harganya jatuh. Namun hingga tahun 1425,
harganya tetap sangat tinggi, mulai dari 100 hingga 160 dinar. Dari tahun 1426 –
1434, sporta lada harganya tidak
lebih dari 70 – 80 dukat. Pada tahun 1435 – 1437, kebijakan Sultan Barsbay
menghasilkan siklus pendek harga lebih tinggi, sporta mencapai 100 – 120 dukat152. Harga kemudian jatuh
ke 40 – 60 dukat pada dekade kelima abad ini. Dilihat dari harga lada di
Suriah, yang bergerak seirama dengan harga Mesir, siklus harga rendah ini
bahkan dimulai lebih awal, pada tahun 1439, dan berakhir setelah tahun 1450.
Data kami mengkonfirmasikan pernyataan di sumber kemudian yang merujuk periode
ini153. Itu berarti bahwa pada pertengahan abad ke-15, harga lada
lebih rendah daripada periode Fatimid154. Tahun 1458 – 1466 membawa
siklus pendek baru harga tinggi, sporta menjadi
90 – 100 dukat. Kemudian harga lada turun sekali lagi. Pada tahun 1471 – 1474, sporta lada di Alexandria harganya 60 –
70 dukat, tetapi pada tahun 1478 – 1497, harganya tidak lebih dari 50 – 60
dukat. Data baru mengenai harga lada di Suriah, misalnya merujuk pada muda tahun 1480 dan 1484155, mendukung
kesimpulan bahwa dalam periode segera sebelum perjalanan Vasco da Gama, harga
lada di pasar Timur Tengah sangat rendah156.
Data
yang telah saya tambahkan dalam makalah ini yang sudah diketahui mengenai harga
kayu manis menunjukan kenaikan yang cukup besar pada dekade kedua abad ini
(lihat harga di Beirut dan Damaskus). Di Mesir pada tahun 1411 – 1418, satu qintar dari manns sekitar 60-70 dinar. Namun pada tahun 1435, harga kayu manis
turun tajam. Di Mesir, harganya hanya 32 – 35 dukat. Di paruh kedua abad ke-15,
periode yang mana informasi kami sangat kurang, harga di Mesir tampaknya
sebagian besar lebih tinggi tidak sebanyak pada dekade kedua. Sedikitnya data
tentang harga kayu manis di Suriah pada periode terakhir ini, menyulitkan untuk
menarik kesimpulan.
Informasi tentang harga jahe
jauh lebih banyak. Ini menunjukan bahwa, seperti halnya rempah-rempah lain,
harganya sangat tinggi pada dekade kedua abad ini, satu qintar beledi di Mesir harganya sekitar 22 dinar. Tapi tampaknya
siklus harga tinggi itu, sudah dimulai sebelumnya, pada akhir abad ke-14. Data
dari Beirut dan Damaskus menunjukan dengan jelas fakta ini. Siklus ini berlangsung
hingga setidaknya tahun 1427. Lalu tren penurunan yang panjang terjadi. Pada tahun 1434-1435, para pedagang Italia dapat
membeli di Alexandria, satu qintar dengan
barter untuk 16-17 dukat, dan dengan uang tunai kadang-kadang bahkan untuk 10
dukat. Dalam tahun 1442-1444, harga rata-rata satu qintar adalah 14-16 dukat, dan setelah siklus harga tinggi pada
tahun 1470an, naik menjadi 25 dukat, pada tahun-tahun terakhir sebelum Portugis
mencapai India, turun menjadi 12-15 dukat. Jahe di Suriah ternyata selalu lebih
mahal, mungkin karena kualitas barang-barang itu yang lebih baik157.
Data baru pada tabel VI menunjukan bahwa harga masih tinggi di tahun 1428-1429,
satu collo menjadi 60 – 90 dukat.
Data dari tahun 1484 yang telah ditambahkan di sini, mengkonfirmasi laporan
dari tahun 1489158. Ini membuktikan bahwa di Suriah juga, harga dari
komoditas penting ini sangat rendah pada akhir abad ke-15.
Harga cengkih berbeda dari
rempah-rempah utama lainnya. Harganya turun jauh dan hampir secara progresif
mulai dari awal periode abad ke-15, tetapi pulih pada tahun 1440an ketika
rempah-rempah lainnya sangat murah. Kemudian harganya jatuh lagi (lihat data
dari Mesir pada tahun 1462 dan musim panas 1497). Jika item-item dalam Roteiro dapat diandalkan, bahkan akan
tetap menunjukan kejatuhan harga yang sebenarnya pada tahun-tahun sebelum
perjalanan Vasco da Gama. Kesimpulan ini akan didukung oleh data yang kami
miliki dari pasar Damaskus pada tahun 1480an.
Data dalam tabel kami menunjukan, bahwa perkembangan harga rempah-rempah di Eropa pada abad ke-15, berhubungan erat dengan pergerakan di pasar Levant. Juga muncul dari tabel kami bahwa harga rempah-rempah lain berkembang pada garis yang mirip dengan lada.
Data dalam tabel kami menunjukan, bahwa perkembangan harga rempah-rempah di Eropa pada abad ke-15, berhubungan erat dengan pergerakan di pasar Levant. Juga muncul dari tabel kami bahwa harga rempah-rempah lain berkembang pada garis yang mirip dengan lada.
Fluktuasi harga rempah-remah di
pasar Levant tercermin di Eropa. Lada menjadi lebih murah di mana-mana di paruh
kedua abad ke-15. Tren ini jelas terlihat dari data dalam dokumen-dokumen yang
merujuk pada harga di negara-negara yang jauh satu sama lain, seperti Perancis
Selatan159, dan Galicia160. Secara alami tingkat harga
rempah-rempah di Venesia, emporium besar komoditas ini, adalah yang paling
khas. F.C. Lane telah mengumpulkan harga lada di Venesia dari sejumlah
manuskrip161, sedangkan Magalhaes-Godinho telah menyusun dari Diarri milik Priuli, suatu daftar serupa
untuk tahun-tahun terakhir abad ke-15162. Tabel berikut memberikan
data tambahan mengenai harga grosir untuk merica, dan juga beberapa informasi
tentang harga jahe beledi.
===== selesai =====
Catatan Kaki
1.
A. H. Lybyer, "The Ottoman Turks and the routes of Oriental
trade", English Historical Review, XXX, 1915, 580, referring to the
data collected by Rogers and d'Avenel; F. C. Lane, "Pepper prices before
Da Gama",JEH, XXVIII, 1968, 590.
2.
Rightly stressed by Lybyer, loc. cit.
3.
Histoire des prix et des salaires dans
I'Orient medieval, Paris, 1969, 327.
4.
"La decouverte de la voie maritime aux Indes et les prix des
epices", in Milanges en Vhonneur de Fernand Braudel, Toulouse,
1973,1, 31 ff.
5.
If I found only a few additional items for the curve of the prices
of a certain product, I publish only these data. But if the new data, as
compared with those already known, are numerous, I compile a complete list. On
the other hand I quote several records from the one year indicating the same
price. As such records refer to different purchases they confirm each other.
Further, I include data in the tables which have been quoted (or printed)
erroneously elsewhere.
6.
The sources most often quoted are:
al-Maqrizi: al-Suluk, MS. Paris 1727. (Suluk 1727.)
ASV (Archivio di Stato, Venice), Senato, Deliberazioni miste. (Miste.)
ASV Giudici di petizi6n, Sentenze. (GP, Sent.)
ASV Cancellaria Inferiore, Notai, Ba 83, Cristoforo del Fiore. (Cristoforo del Fiore.)
ASV Cancellaria Inferiore, Notai, Ba 211, Nicolo Turiano. (Nic. Turiano.)
ASV Cancellaria Inferiore, Notai, Ba 230, Nicolo Venier. (Nic. Venier.)
ASV Miscellanea di carte non appartenenti ad alcun archivio, Ba 8, 29. (Miscell. di ness, arch.)
ASV PSM (Procuratori di S. Marco), Commissarie miste, Ba 128a, Com. A. Zane, fasc. V (cf. Hist. prix sal., 409 f.). (Zane.)
ASV PSM Com. miste, Ba 180, 181, Com. Biegio Dolfin. (Dolfin.)
ASG (Archivio di Stato, Genoa), Archivio Segreto 2774 C. (ASG 2774 C.)
ASP (Archivio di Stato, Prato), Quaderni di charichi e prezzi 1171, 1175. (Datini.)
Melis, F.: Documenti per la storia economica del secoli XJH-XVl, Florence, 1972. (Melis, Doc.
al-Maqrizi: al-Suluk, MS. Paris 1727. (Suluk 1727.)
ASV (Archivio di Stato, Venice), Senato, Deliberazioni miste. (Miste.)
ASV Giudici di petizi6n, Sentenze. (GP, Sent.)
ASV Cancellaria Inferiore, Notai, Ba 83, Cristoforo del Fiore. (Cristoforo del Fiore.)
ASV Cancellaria Inferiore, Notai, Ba 211, Nicolo Turiano. (Nic. Turiano.)
ASV Cancellaria Inferiore, Notai, Ba 230, Nicolo Venier. (Nic. Venier.)
ASV Miscellanea di carte non appartenenti ad alcun archivio, Ba 8, 29. (Miscell. di ness, arch.)
ASV PSM (Procuratori di S. Marco), Commissarie miste, Ba 128a, Com. A. Zane, fasc. V (cf. Hist. prix sal., 409 f.). (Zane.)
ASV PSM Com. miste, Ba 180, 181, Com. Biegio Dolfin. (Dolfin.)
ASG (Archivio di Stato, Genoa), Archivio Segreto 2774 C. (ASG 2774 C.)
ASP (Archivio di Stato, Prato), Quaderni di charichi e prezzi 1171, 1175. (Datini.)
Melis, F.: Documenti per la storia economica del secoli XJH-XVl, Florence, 1972. (Melis, Doc.
7.
Pagnini, Delia decima, Lisbon, Lucca, 1765-6, II, 78. As to
the prices themselves see the remarks of C. Trasselli, "Produzione e
commercio dello zucchero in Sicilia dal XIII al XIX secolo", Economia e
storia, III, 1955, 334.
8.
p . 111.
9.
El libro di mercatantie et usanze de'
paesi, ed. Fr. Borlandi, Turin, 1936, 81.
10.
In the pleadings of a lawsuit, GP, Sent. 129, f. 58b ff., the
defendant Polo Mudazio is described as patron of a galley to Beirut in 1454 on
which the merchandise (pepper) was shipped. But according to Senato, Mar Reg.
IV, f. 189a, he was patron in 1453, whereas his name does not appear in the
list of the patrons of 1454. In a passage of the plea of the defendant one in
fact finds the date 1453. Certainly this error can be explained by the fact
that the accounts were made according to prices in Venice, where the merchandise
was sold in 1454. The tribunal in fact establishes the price of a carica, sc.
in Venice (f. 59b). So the deeds refer to the price in Venice.
11.
See GP, Sent. 98, f. 75b f.; 99, f. 12b ff.; 129, f. 58b ff.
12.
See GP, Sent. 100, f. 40a,
and see below.
13.
Melis, Doc, 186.
14.
See GP, Sent. 48, f. 52b f.; 17, f. 54a f.; 20, f. 20a f.; 100, f.
6a ff.; (salvo drieto).
15.
W. Hinz, Islamische Masse und Gewichte, Leiden, 1955, 30.
16.
Uzzano, 113, actually has 620 libbre sottili, but see Tarifa
zoe noticia deipexi e mexure, Venice, 1925, 26, 64; // manuale di
mercatura di Saminiato di Ricci, ed. A. Borlandi, Genoa, 1963, 35; Libro
di mercatantie, 147; GP, Sent. 19, f. 66a f.; 114, f. 75a; 181, f. 123a,
etc.
17.
ASV Giudici di petizi6n, Terminazioni VII, f. 21b, 26a, 32b, 47a,
89b, 92b; VIII, f. 48a, 48b, 50a; 11, f.
98a, 109b, 165b; 12, f. 98a, 101a, 107b; 13, f. 30a, 96b, 97b. J. Heers concluded that the collo was equal to 91 kg., see // commercio nel Mediterraneo alia fine del sec. XIV e mi primi anni del XV, ASI, CXIII, 1955, 184, whereas Lane found that it was only 290 Venetian pounds, cf. "Venetian shipping during the commercial revolution", in his Venice and history, Baltimore, 1966, 13.
98a, 109b, 165b; 12, f. 98a, 101a, 107b; 13, f. 30a, 96b, 97b. J. Heers concluded that the collo was equal to 91 kg., see // commercio nel Mediterraneo alia fine del sec. XIV e mi primi anni del XV, ASI, CXIII, 1955, 184, whereas Lane found that it was only 290 Venetian pounds, cf. "Venetian shipping during the commercial revolution", in his Venice and history, Baltimore, 1966, 13.
18.
Hinz, op. cit., 29.
19.
Pegolotti, ed. Evans, 75, has the equation with 139 Genoese pounds
(44-02825 kg.), Libro di mercatantie, 140, with 133-33 Genoese pounds
(42-23222775 kg.), but p. 76 with 150 light Venetian pounds, i.e. 45-1845 kg.
In GP, Sent. 129, f. 153a ff., it is said to equal 144 light Venetian pounds,
i.e. 43-37712 kg.
20.
Uzzano, 109; Libro di mercatantie, 76; Tarifa, 28,
60 all have 720 libbre sottili. Pegolotti, 7 1 , says t h a t cantari
2\ gervi di zucchero are considered the same weight as a sporta, a n
d as th e qintar jarwi, according to the Italian sources, consisted of
90 kg., the sporta would have been 225 kg. M a n y other sources
indicate, however, 700 Venetian pounds as the equivalent of the sporta, see
A . Sapori, Studi di storia economica, Florence, 1955-67, III, 2 1 ; G P
, Sent. 105, f. 136b ff.; 108, f. 7 0 b ; o r 710 pounds, cf. G P , Sent. 34,
f. 37a ff.
21.
Hinz, op. cit., 16.
22.
Pegolotti, 74, has the equation 2-65-2-68 libbre sottili, i.e.
O-7982595-O-8072964 kg., but both Uzzano, 112, a n d Libro di mercatantie,
11 have 2 - 5 libbre sottili, i.e. 0-753075 kg.
23.
loc. cit.
24.
The only relevant text among those quoted by Lane which
substantiates his conclusion is ASV Senato,
Mar Reg. 12, f. 136b, a decree of 20 March, 1488 concerning a deposit to be paid pro quolibet collo
26 alexandrino due. 2, pro quolibet collo damascheno due. i. See also Lane in JEH, XXVIII, 1968, 591 n. 6.
Mar Reg. 12, f. 136b, a decree of 20 March, 1488 concerning a deposit to be paid pro quolibet collo
26 alexandrino due. 2, pro quolibet collo damascheno due. i. See also Lane in JEH, XXVIII, 1968, 591 n. 6.
25.
If there is no other indication, the Egyptian price-tables refer
to the market of Alexandria, and the Syrian to Damascus. Collecting data from
the acts of the Giudici dipetizibn, I quote, as far as possible, in the
tables the prices fixed by the tribunal, whereas the prices claimed by the
litigants are relegated to the notes.
26.
If there is no other
indication, it is the price of a sporta.
27.
A list of various articles bought by the Venetians in 1401 till 27
September. Therefore the price-range is wide.
28.
The reference being to a lawsuit pleaded in July 1407, one may
suppose that the transaction dated from not later than 1405 (and possibly
earlier). The merchandise had been transported to Venice on a cog whose patron
was Marco de Benedetto. In the pleadings one reads that 970 Venetian pounds
were worth
85 ducats. Accordingly the price of a sporta was 63 ducats.
29.
The defendant says that one also paid 220 ducats.
30.
This is the price fixed by the law-court (40 ducats and 11 grossi
ad aurum for 116 pounds). The plaintiff says that the price was 330 ducats
(53 ducats for 116 pounds). According to the register of the litigation pleaded
on 19 August, 1413 the transaction was made at the preceding muda. Nicolo
Memo, who bought the pepper, was certainly in Alexandria in 1412, cf. GP, Sent.
336, f. 56a ff. On the other hand one reads in the pleadings that the pepper
was shipped on a galley of "Pietro fil. Alban Contarini" (in the MS
only "Pietro dmni Albani", without "Contarini"). He was in
1409 and in 1412 patron of a galley going to Alexandria, cf. Miste 48, f. 84a,
49, f. 127a.
31.
Many notes in the Dolfin archives have no exact dates.
32.
The litigation pleaded on 19 March, 1426 refers to the activities
of a company " per aliquantum temporum " . The sporta is here
called "cargo", cf. Hist, prix sal., 324 n. a. In fact
the names of the weights are often confused.
33.
On the date cf. M . E. Mallett, The Florentine galleys in the
fifteenth century, Oxford, 1967, 26.
34.
p sporta expedita sup nave.
35.
By an error the price is said to be that of a qintar.
36.
In the text quoted in the first place the unit of weight for which
the said price had been paid is erroneously called zpondo. But the fattore
claims that the real price was 100-5 ducats a sporta.
37.
Pleadings, on 16 August 1428, of a lawsuit against Marco
Contarini, patron of the galley on which the merchandise has been shipped. This
name is not to be found on the registers of the Senate referring to the years
preceding 1428. But the name Constantino Contarini appears as patron of an
Alexandrian galley
in 1423 and in 1426, cf. Miste 54, f. 118b and 56, f. 36a.
38.
I quote the date of the document, but the transaction itself had
been made earlier.
39.
This is not the market price. The Venetian Bartolomeo Bembo wants the
said amount from a Sicilian merchant who was very eager to barter a certain
quantity of sugar.
40.
Lawsuit pleaded on 30 November 1430.
41.
The plaintiff claims at first that the price of 714 ratls was 155
ducats, the defendant says 185 ducats, and finally the plaintiff confesses that
the price was 180 ducats. According to the latter statement the price of a sporta
was 125 ducats, but the defendant is acquitted.
42.
The plaintiff claims 42.
43.
Dubrovnik et le Levant, Paris, 1961. A s this
price was stipulated for a delayed payment, the market price was probably
lower.
44.
Lawsuit pleaded on 26 March 1444.
45.
A lawsuit pleaded on 10 February 1445. The pepper had been sold by a
Venetian to a fellow-countryman.
46.
Lawsuit pleaded on 12 January 1445.
47.
The merchandise had been resold on the sea-shore for 51 ducats.
48.
The plaintiff says that the price was 50 ducats, the defendant asserts that
others bought for 97.
49.
Lawsuit pleaded on 19 April 1451.
50.
Lawsuit pleaded on 2 April 1446.
51.
The plaintiff: 100 ducats.
52.
The plaintiff had asked for 100 ducats.
53.
The plaintiff: 61 ducats.
54.
The plaintiff: 66-7 ducats. The sum fixed by the tribunal is the price of
700 Venetian light pounds, so58 that a sporta of 720 would have amounted
to 57-7 ducats.
55.
Lawsuit pleaded on 26 May 1463.
56.
Lawsuit pleaded on 27 May 1465.
57.
In the text quoted in the first place different prices are indicated, the
average being 70 ducats. In the other text, which refers to the same
transaction, one reads that the pepper had been bought from the"merchant
of the sultan" at 70 ducats, which was surely the market price, and later
resold by the fattore at the same price.
58.
Price at which pepper was sold by the Genoese consulate.
59.
See n. 58 above.
60.
See n. 58 above.
61.
A purchase made by the consulate from an Italian merchant.
62.
A purchase made by the consulate from an Italian merchant.
63.
A purchase by the consulate.
64.
A purchase by the consulate from an Italian merchant.
65.
Although this entry refers to a purchase from the "emir", it is
the market price.
66.
This is the price at which the consulate sells the quantity of pepper
bought from the "emir".
67.
The price includes duties.
68.
Lawsuit pleaded on 7 March 1486 concerning the barter of wheat of Cyprus at
a high price against pepper. Vittore Marzello, the archbishop of Cyprus who
bought the pepper, occupied the see from 7
February 1477 to 2 January 1484, see C. Eubel, Hierarchia Catholica medii
aevi, II, Miinster, 1914, 203. On the
other hand, in the years 1479-83 pepper was cheap and in 1480 wheat was also,
see 'Abd al-Basif b. Khalil, Nail al-amal, MS
Bodl. 812, f. 300b.
69.
Reyssbuch des heyligen Lands, Francfort, 1609.
70.
One reads in the pleadings dated 18 May 1489 that the pepper was shipped on
a galley belonging to the convoy whose captain was Marco Gabriel. According to ASV
Segretario alle voci VI, f. 83a, he was captain
of the Alexandria galleys in 1487. The patron of the galley was Fantin
Arimondo, whose name in fact figures on the
list of the patrons of 1487, see ASV Incanti I, f. 122b.
71.
The text does not give the price. One reads, however, that a Venetian
company sold olive oil, imported in Alexandria, at two
prices: 11 qinfars for a sporta pepper and \1\. As the price of a
qintar (jarwi) of European oil was then
probably 6 ducats, a sporta was worth 66 ducats. For the price of
oil see Hist, prix sal., 319.
72.
According to the plaintiff the price amounted to 60 ducats only.
73.
Roteiro da viagem de Vasco da Gama en 1497, 2nd ed., Lisbon,
1861. The exchange rate of the cruzado was almost equal to the
ducat, see A. Weitnauer, Der venezianische Handel der Fugger, Munich,
Leipzig, 1931, 61. If the author had the Portuguese
quintal (58-752 kg.) in mind, the price would have
been rather lower.
74.
This was not the market price, see Melanges Braudel, I, 45 n. 31.
75.
According to Pegolotti, 101, the qintar of Ramla was equal to 1,12
quintal of Cyprus, i.e. 252,6333423 kg.
76.
The date of the purchase is not indicated, but according to the register of
the litigation pleaded on 9 February 1417, the merchandise h a d been shipped o n a
galley whose patron was Jacobus Barbadico.This name appears on the list of the
patrons of the Beirut galleys in 1412,1413, and 1416, cf. Miste 49, f. 126a 50, f. 5b 51, f. 137a. The price indicated in the
text, however, corresponds to those of 1412.
77.
Another lawsuit concerning a shipment on the galley of Giacomo Barbarigo.
For 53-5 ratls the sum of 60 ducats was demanded, but
not accepted by the tribunal.
78.
To be corrected in Hist, prix sal., 411, from 14 August 1413.
79.
In the text quoted in the first place one reads: ratV 63 val
circa . . . due' 96 gr' 3(?), and in the other text: ratl'
62 one' 9 - due' 96.
80.
The plaintiff h ad asked for 84 ducats.
81.
A letter from Rhodes dated 3 October 1417. The writer asks his
correspondent to buy at this price. So the price after the muda is meant.
82.
To be corrected from dm (dirhams).
83.
In the pleadings a lower price is indicated, viz. 55 ducats.
84.
A lawsuit pleaded on 14 February 1428.
85.
The Venetian merchant for w h o m the fattore bought the
pepper had allowed him to buy at 88-99 ducats.
86.
This was the amount asked for by the plaintiff. The court absolved
the defendant.
87.
Two litigations (action and counter-plea) referring to the same
transaction. In the register of litigations pleaded in 1430 (without exact
date, probably in March) the date of the transaction is not given. But one
reads that the merchandise was loaded on a galley whose patron was Andrea
Tiepolo, and according to Miste 57, f. 118b he conducted a galley to Beirut in
1429.
88.
A lawsuit pleaded on 7 March 1430. The merchandise had been
shipped on the galley of Bertuzio Dolfin.
He was patron of a Beirut galley in 1425, 1426, and 1429, see Miste 55, f. 148b 56, f. 36a 57, f. 118b. The price corresponds to the data from 1429, but it is not impossible that the text refers to 1426. In 1425 the price was apparently higher.
He was patron of a Beirut galley in 1425, 1426, and 1429, see Miste 55, f. 148b 56, f. 36a 57, f. 118b. The price corresponds to the data from 1429, but it is not impossible that the text refers to 1426. In 1425 the price was apparently higher.
89.
A lawsuit pleaded on 9 February 1437 referring to pepper bought in
Damascus. The price indicated in the table is the price brutto (computatis
expensis et provisione), which means the expenses in Damascus as fixed by
the tribunal. The plaintiff had asked for 56-4 ducats, whereas the defendant
maintained that he had sold to others for 69 ducats.
90.
With the expenses in Damascus the price amounted to 75 ducats.
91.
4 qintars had been bought at 47-5 ducats each. The qintar
of Tripoli was equal to the Damascus qintar, cf. Pegolotti, 90, 91.
92.
A lawsuit pleaded on 31 July 1438.
93.
A lawsuit pleaded on 30 May 1438. It is not stated that the pepper
had been bought in Damascus, but there can be no doubt of it.
94.
The price does not include expenses. With them (but without the freight)
it would have been about 6 ducats more. Payment had been half in cash, half by
barter. The defendant claims that paying in cash one could have bought at 35
ducats. If the qintar spoken of was the qintar of Acre, being 226
kg. (see
Pegolotti, 67), the Damascus qintar amounted to 36 ducats only.
95.
At this price the Venetian cottimo sells the pepper.
96.
The plaintiff asked for 51 ducats, the price without expenses.
97.
A litigation between Franco Dolfin and his fattore Fantin
Bon, pleaded on 22 August 1461 and referring to the purchase of pepper in
Damascus. Franco Dolfin was in Damascus in 1460, see Cristoforo del Fiore, VI,
f. [la]f., but in the pleadings of the lawsuit one finds, f. 166a, the date
1458. In this latter year the pepper was, however, much more expensive (see
above). Further one reads in the register: "/> resto di pip r"
11 io le di a Damascho due' 11", a statement probably referring to a
purchase at another date.
98.
See in Mdlanges Braudel, I, 45 n. 39. Another entry of this
purchase is to be found in his accounts in Miscell. di ness. arch. Ba 8, fasc.
8. The note concerning the purchase from the sultan in 1475 for 104-5 ducats,
ASV PSM Com. m. Ba 116 fasc. 7 (cf. Milanges Braudel, I, 35) undoubtedly
refers to a
price fixed arbitrarily by the Mamluk government.
99.
A lawsuit pleaded on 4 March 1485. T he a m o u nt listed in the
table is the price asked for by the plaintiff.
Since the merchandise had been sequestered at the Customs office in Venice it is the brutto price. The action is refused by the court. So n o conclusions can be drawn from the text.
Since the merchandise had been sequestered at the Customs office in Venice it is the brutto price. The action is refused by the court. So n o conclusions can be drawn from the text.
100.
Hist, prix sal., 410,
notes.
101.
The merchandise h a d been resold at the price listed in the table
in Damascus . The lawsuit was pleaded on 30 June 1486.
102.
The kinds of cinnamon which are most often mentioned in our
documents are the following: (a) canella lunga or fina; (b) salani (from
Ceylon) or mezzana; (c) mabari (from Malabar) or grossa, cf.
Heyd, II , 597 f. The name of the second kind appears in the list of Uzzano,
112, as senelli and 114 as salami.
103.
The unit of weight whose prices are listed in the table is the qintar
of manns. cf. above, n. 27. T h e note refers to various kinds of
cinnamon.
104.
The register of the lawsuit, pleaded on 10 February 1417, does not
include the date of the purchase. It
does mention, however, the patron of the galley on which the merchandise was shipped: Joh. Gradenigo.
According to Miste 51, f. 136a, he was p a t r o n of an Alexandrian galley in 1416.
does mention, however, the patron of the galley on which the merchandise was shipped: Joh. Gradenigo.
According to Miste 51, f. 136a, he was p a t r o n of an Alexandrian galley in 1416.
105.
A lawsuit pleaded on 30 November 1430.
106.
Accounts of transactions in Alexandria in 1444-5. T h e item
reads: el canter [sc. 100 Venetian pounds!] due' 15.
107.
There is no date of the transaction in the register of the
lawsuit, pleaded on 30 May 1461. But Piero Morosini, who demands payment for
spices bought by him in Alexandria, went there in 1460, see G P , Sent. 133, f.
39b ff., and cf. 135, f. 132a ff.
108.
cf. Hist, prix sal., 412 ff.
109. The register of the lawsuit pleaded on 10 June 1413 does not
contain the date of the transaction. Benedetto
Dandolo, who made the purchase in Damascus, was there in 1411 (see Hist, prix sal, 415) and in 1412 (see Giacomo della Torre, ASV Notarile 14832 no. 2 (31 March 1412)). The plaintiff, who had left the merchandise to be sold, was there in 1411, see GP, Sent. 32, f. 30b ff. There is an error in the account: 174 Venetian pounds equal 28, not 18 Damascene rathls
Dandolo, who made the purchase in Damascus, was there in 1411 (see Hist, prix sal, 415) and in 1412 (see Giacomo della Torre, ASV Notarile 14832 no. 2 (31 March 1412)). The plaintiff, who had left the merchandise to be sold, was there in 1411, see GP, Sent. 32, f. 30b ff. There is an error in the account: 174 Venetian pounds equal 28, not 18 Damascene rathls
110. A lawsuit pleaded on 3 April 1417.
111. See above, n. 81.
112. To be corrected in Hist, prix sal., 414.
113. The text reads erroneously "75". But as the price of 230 rails
is 210 dinars, it must be 91-3.
114. cf. Heyd, II, 599.
115. When not otherwise indicated, the price listed is that of a qintar of
45 kg. If the kind of ginger is not
116. See above, n. 27. One reads in the text: "ginger of all kinds". specified in the source, I assume that it is beledi ginger.
117. The sum quoted in the table was stated in the deed to be the market price,
but it deals with a purchase
118. A lawsuit pleaded in August or September 1428. by barter at the price of 15
dinars.
119. As to the following quotations from the deeds of Nic. Turiano see my paper
in Milanges Braudel, I, 37, and nn. 45-50.
120. The defendant claimed that the ginger was acquired for 8-5-9 ducats. The
verdict of the court was a compromise: the defendant must pay for the greater
part of the merchandise due. 7 gr. 12 and for a smaller part (the sieved
ginger) the market price in Venice.
121. A lawsuit pleaded on 28 August 1444.
122. As to the date, see above, n. 107. The defendant says that the beledi cost
only 14 ducats.
123. The price listed in the table is the sum asked by the plaintiff. The date
of the transaction is not indicated. But Marco Morosini (fil.
Zuan), who shipped the ginger from Alexandria, was there in 1461, see G P Sent.
150, f. 49a ff., and the lawsuit was pleaded on 10 July 1462.
124. The price quoted in the table is claimed by the defendant. The plaintiff
asserts that the ginger had been bought for 23 ducats.
125. This is the price asked for by the plaintiff.
126. A lawsuit pleaded on 10 February 1491
127. The pleadings refer to ginger transported to Modon on a galea di
traffico, but there can be no doubt that an Alexandrian collo is
meant.
128. cf. Hist, prix sal, 414 ff.
129. Although n o date is mentioned in the register of the lawsuit pleaded on 14
January 1416, it can easily be established. Nicolo Dolfin, who had given the
order to invest a great sum in the purchase of ginger when he was captain of
the Cyprus galleys, held this post in 1409, cf. Cronica Morosini, M S
Vienna, the Foscarini 234 (6584), f. 230a (179b).
130. The price is 1,935 dirhams. According to the price-lists Zane on 10 October
1411 (in Damascus) exchange rate was 51 dirhams to the ducat, but here
apparently other (sc. Hamath) dirhams are meant. In fact one finds the exchange rates 31, 31-33, 32, 35, 36
dirhams in accounts of Donado Soranzo from the years 1414-18.
131. The price is 2,009 dirhams. The exchange rate was according to the said
lists on 10 March 1412,90 dirhams to the ducat.
132. d. in the MS means dirhams.
133. Seen. 81.
134. Pleadings of a lawsuit on 4 June 1428.
135. The date is uncertain. The plaintiff says that the defendant began to send
him merchandise in 1428
136. See above, n. 88 and below, n. 137. Polo Barbarigo, the defendant who sent
the merchandise from Beirut, was there in 1429, cf. G P
, Sent. 54, f. 63b, and Miste 57, f. 118b. The sum quoted from the pleadings,
whose date is probably February 1430 is the price asked for by the plaintiff.
There is no decision.
137. See above, n. 88. The price is what the plaintiff demanded;there is no verdict.
The pleadings have no date, probably it was June or July 1430.
138. The plaintiff had asked for 150.
139. In fact the place where the ginger had been bought is not mentioned in the
pleadings, but it is much more probable that it was Damascus than Alexandria.
140. A lawsuit pleaded on 28 August 1445. I conclude that it referred to a
transaction in 1440 (approximately), because the "Syrian"
dirham is calculated at & ducat. This was the exchange rate in 1440,
see GP, Sent. 84, f. 123a f., whereas it was
40 in 1443, see same series 112, f. 63b.
141. A lawsuit pleaded on 30 June 1486.
142. A lawsuit pleaded on 31 November 1430.
143. A lawsuit pleaded on 10 February 1445.
144. The pleadings have "ratl", but this is surely an error
(for mann).
145. cf. Hist, prix sal., 471 f.
146. To be corrected in Hist, prix sal., 418 (from "1417").
147. L 1131 onze 1 bought for L 37 s 6 d 7/28.1 have calculated the price of the
Damascene qintar accordingly.
148. See Nic. Venier B, 2, f. 9b f.: etnerat (piperem) adpretium quo
venderetur ad terminum galearum Venetorum ad viagium Baruti mude pres. See
also G P , Sent. 76, f. 47a.
149. See the prices of beledi ginger in Syria in 1411-12 listed above and cf. Hist.
prix. sal., 415.
150. See above in the notes on pepper prices in Egypt in July 1425, 1444.
151. See my paper "La decouverte de la voie maritime" , 36.
152. The rise of the pepper price in the last years of Barsbay's reign
is clearly indicated by the data from Venice, see below sub anno 1436
and in the table of Lane, art. cit., 594.
153. Marino Sanuto VII, col. 218; Tauflq Iskandar, Ni?am
al-muqdyaa'a fi tijdrat Misr al-kharijiya, in alMajalla al-ta'rikhlya
al-misriya, VI, 1957, 43.
154. See Hist, prix sal., 138 f.
155. The data which I have collected do not confirm the opinion of
Lane, art. cit., 590 concerning the level of prices in the 1470's. On the N e a
r Eastern markets they were certainly higher than in the 1440's. As to prices
in Syria in the '80's see Hist, prix sal., 412. The difference between
the price of pepper in Alexandria and in Damascus is smaller if the Damascene qintar
is considered equal to 180 kg.
156. Contrary to the mistaken statement of S. Y. Labib concerning the
rise of the pepper price in Egypt in the 15th century, see his Handelsgeschichte
Agyptens im Spdtmittelalter, Wiesbaden, 1965, 438. It should be stressed
that even the price of those quantities which the Venetians had to buy from the
sultan forcibly (upon which Labib erroneously relies) went down !
157. Therefore at the end of the 14th century and in the first half of
the 15th century European merchants bought m o r e ginger in Syria than in
Egypt, see J. Heers, // commercio nel Mediterraneo, 168,172,174, 175; my
Les metaux pre'cieux et la balance des payments du Proche Orient a la basse
epoque, Paris, 1971, 74; L a decouverte de la voie maritime, 38, Table V I
I ; "Venetian supremacy in the Levantine lbe trade—monopoly or
pre-colonialism?", /. European Economic History, III, 1974, 36 f.
158. Hist, prix sal., 416.
159. E. Baratier and F . Reynaud, Histoire du commerce de Marseille,
II, Paris, 1951, 388.
160. J. Pelc, Ceny w Krakowie w latach 1369-1600, Lwow, 1935,
42, and cf. M . Malowist, "Les routes du commerce et les marchandises du
Levant dans la vie de la Pologne au bas Moyen Age et au debut de l'epoque
moderne", in Mediterraneo e Oceano Indiano, Atti del sesto colloquio
intern, di storia marittima, 1962, Florence, 1970, 167.
161. art. cit., JEH, XXVIII, 1958, 594 f.
162. Viconomie de I'empire portugais aux XV* et XVIe siecles, Paris, 1969, 719 f.
163. Almost all the data which I have found in the registers of the Giudici
dipetizibn and certain other sources refer to years for which Lane has no
items. But some are taken from the letters to Biegio Dolfin which have also
been quoted by Lane. The eminent American scholar, however, quotes another part
of the Dolfin archives, namely Ba 181, whereas I also use the numerous documents
in Ba 180. This folder in fact contains some price-lists which the Italian
merchants used to compile for various emporia.
164. A lawsuit pleaded on 15 October 1457.
165. Accounts of the company of Andrea Zorzi and the family Marino
Sanuto, the latter partners being the "fraterna" Giacomo, Paolo and
Lionardo, sons of Marino Sanuto.
166. K. J. Miiller, Welthandelsbrauche {1480-1540), Wiesbaden,
1962. But see there 186: 50-2 ducats!
167. Lawsuit in 1458.
168. A lawsuit in 1482. It is possible that the amount asked for is not the
price, but simply compensation.
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